The Dissemination and Inheritance of Yokai Culture: Trends from the Edo Period to the Present
Yumoto Kōichi
Director Emeritus of the Yumoto Koichi Memorial JAPAN YOKAI MUSEUM (Miyoshi Mononoke Museum)
Firstly, yokai can be described as a product of the imagination born from people’s fear, awe, and anxiety toward nature and unknown presences that writhe within the darkness. For this reason, the yokai have taken on strangely grotesque and uncanny appearances, becoming a subject of people’s fear. Information regarding these various yokai soon came to be widely shared among the people, and the common recognition of their respective features and names led to the creation of a fixed image for each individual yokai. Then, there was a shift to a new stage as their images were further captured through visual renditions. The yokai that were depicted proved to have a great impact by unveiling their appearance directly before people’s eyes. They widely and profoundly penetrated the hearts of many, laying the foundation for their explosive dissemination in times to come.
What played a major role in visualizing these yokai were picture scrolls. The history of picture scrolls in Japan dates back to ancient times, with some of the earliest examples produced since the Nara period (710–794 CE). All of the works depicting the yokai that can be confirmed at present are from the Kamakura period (1185–1333 CE), and the majority of existing works were produced during the Edo period (1615–1868 CE). The themes, however, are diverse, and it can indeed be seen that yokai picture scrolls developed significantly during the Edo period. In addition, there are some notable events that can be confirmed in the process by which these picture scrolls developed. One is that the position of the yokai changed from a supporting role to the central protagonist role. For example, there are the famous Shuten-dōji Emaki and Tsuchigumo-sōshi Emaki that for long continued to be depicted since before the Edo period. Both tell the story of Minamoto no Yorimitsu (948–1021 CE), a brave samurai of the Heian period (794–1185 CE), and his four lieutenants on their quest to exterminate the Oni (“demon”) and Tsuchigumo (“earth spider”). The central subject of these scrolls is Yoshimitsu’s heroic tale, with the Oni and Tsuchigumo appearing as supporting characters defeated by Yorimitsu. Meanwhile, the Tsukumogami Emaki, which depicts yokai in the form of objects, was created for the purpose of illustrating the virtues of Buddhist teachings. The scroll tells the tale of various everyday tools, such as old desks and kitchen utensils, that were discarded while a house that had come to be occupied by spirits was cleaned. While holding a grudge against human beings and repeatedly engaging in evil deeds, such spirited objects eventually devoted themselves to the teachings of Buddhism and attained Buddhahood. In this way, the scroll aimed to communicate the blessed teachings of Buddhism that enabled even inanimate objects to rest their spirits. In other words, the objects depicted here are merely tools used to convey the magnificence of Buddhism.
The Hyakki Yagyō Emaki are a pioneering example of a work in which yokai, which until then had only served in a supporting role, came to be depicted as a central subject. The oldest surviving scroll is said to have been painted by Tosa Mitsunobu (1434?–1525 CE) during the Muromachi period (1336–1573 CE) and has been handed down to the Shinjuan sub-temple located at the site of the Daitoku-ji Temple in Kyoto. Unlike the three picture scrolls introduced earlier, a distinct feature of this scroll is that not only are humans not depicted at all but even mere hints of their presence cannot be felt. What is indeed presented here is a world that features only yokai. This picture scroll was a subject that continued to be painted by artists of the two mainstream schools of modern painting: the Tosa school and the Kanō school. Many examples of the most popular type were depicted in the Edo period, and yet there are also several other types of work that are referred to as the Hyakki Yagyō Emaki, thus illustrating the sheer expansion and popularity of its theme and motif.
Meanwhile, various types of yokai picture scrolls other than the Hyakki Yagyō Emaki were depicted during the Edo period, giving rise to a vibrant and diverse multitude of works. Furthermore, the times saw a particular event that led to the dramatic development of yokai culture. With the development of woodblock printing, multicolored nishiki-e (“brocade pictures”) became available to all people at an affordable price, resulting in yokai permeating the lives of the masses. Therefore, people’s view toward the yokai as scary and awe inspiring changed, bringing about the emergence of an admirable and friendly kind of yokai. Another change was that the yokai came to be depicted not only on paper media, such as nishiki-e and picture scrolls, but also in the form of three-dimensional objects. This new view toward yokai that emerged during the Edo period has been inherited to the present day, leading to the formation of today’s yokai culture, which is dominated by cherished and almost character-like renditions of yokai. In order to gain a comprehensive and contextual view of this situation, it is perhaps important to go back in time to look at various materials related to yokai.
Chapter 1: The Spectacular World of Yokai Picture Scrolls
Yokai picture scrolls depicting various yokai running wild and rampant across washi paper that, at times, is over 10 meters long, are a vibrant example of yokai works that continue to fascinate and attract people’s interest. One of the most famous is the Hyakki Yagyō Emaki (picture scroll of the Night Parade of One Hundred Demons). As the name suggests, many yokai are depicted in conveying their lively and vivid world, and yet the Hyakki Yagyō Emaki is so expansive to the extent that it can be classified into numerous types. In addition to works that have been passed down since ancient times, such as the Hyakki Yagyō Emaki, many newly themed yokai picture scrolls came to emerge during the Edo period. There are a wide variety of works, from playfully humorous ones that depict yokai almost as if they were human—spanning from their marriage to the birth of their children—to picture scrolls like illustrated reference books that serve to introduce each individual yokai. In addition, there are quite a few works that depict yokai legends that have been passed down in various local regions. For this reason, there are some that have received much acclaim as artistic works painted by the hands of professional painters, while others are not as highly regarded. This can also be considered proof of the vast proliferation of yokai picture scrolls during the Edo period.
Chapter 2: The Richly Colorful World of Yokai
During the Edo period, the rise of publishing culture resulting from the developments in woodblock printing brought benefits to everyday life in areas such as education and entertainment. At the time, Europe was experiencing the beginning of a new era in the wake of the Industrial Revolution and the French Revolution, and the Qing dynasty, which reigned over East Asia, began to show signs of decline due to the advance of European powers and because of civil war. Developments in woodblock printing also presented a significant influence on yokai culture. A world different from hand-painted picture scrolls came to unfold. Printing as a tool made it possible to reproduce the same work multiple times, making it affordable and easy for anyone to obtain. Such a situation brought about an increase in demand and made the yokai a familiar presence to people. In particular, multicolored nishiki-e captured the hearts of people, and the expansion of demand resulted in the production of a wide variety of yokai nishiki-e, which in turn led to further demand. In this way, yokai nishiki-e with playful and satirical contents came to be created. Richly colorful and dazzling yokai nishiki-e can thus be regarded as having pushed yokai to a new stage.
Chapter 3: Yokai and Games
Yokai, which were originally regarded as awe- and fear-inspiring beings, are on the opposite end of the spectrum from the act of “playing.” While there seems to be no connection at all between the two, yokai and games were closely linked during the Edo period, and new styles of yokai appeared. Large cities such as Edo and Osaka were formed, which brought about an explosive demand for printed matter. At the time, romantic novels and woodblock-printed illustrated works of fiction gained overwhelming popularity among the masses. This situation served to easily link yokai to publications, bringing them closer to people’s daily lives. People became less afraid of the yokai, which had become a familiar presence to them, and they eventually felt a sense of closeness and affection for them, which even gave birth to amicable and almost friendly-looking yokai. In this way, charming yokai were depicted on sugoroku (traditional Japanese board game), karuta (playing cards), and omocha-e (ukiyo-e published for children as toys) and further delved into the world of games as they came to be strongly favored by children. Sugoroku is a game that is played by rolling dice, and the yokai are depicted in the place where the dice are rolled. Such an act would not be possible if yokai were regarded as a subject of fear and awe. When it comes to menko, the thick circular or rectangular cards featuring yokai are slapped down on the ground. These games are nothing but proof that people’s view of yokai changed.
Chapter 4: Yokai Passed Down to Present Day
During the Meiji period, when Japan began actively adopting Western culture, yokai came to be systematically discussed as an academic discipline. Buddhist philosopher Inoue Enryō scientifically explained the phenomenon of yokai and established “yokai studies,” which served to abolish superstitions. In addition, folklore scholar Yanagita Kunio approached yokai by investigating and researching the thoughts of the Japanese people as well as the natural environment behind the creation of yokai. This kind of academic research has been passed down to the present day. On the other hand, non-scary yokai paraphernalia that characterized the dissemination of yokai culture during the Edo period became even more prolific, and yokai-related goods liked by children were included in the lineup of inexpensive toys and collectible freebies sold at candy stores, proving to be widely popular. While yokai culture was deemed unnecessary and was thus banished during World War II, it came to gain great momentum once again in the advent of peace. Eventually, the yokai began making appearances in manga, anime, games, and so on, affirming their place within modern society. These trends have spread not only in the world of children but are also now gaining popularity overseas. The strong vitality of yokai culture has been nurtured over a long course of history, and this is the reason it has the power to fascinate everyone across generations and countries.